The female gonads, or sexual glands, are the ovaries; they are the source of ova (eggs) and of the female sex hormones estrogens and progestogens. The fallopian, or uterine, tubes conduct ova to the uterus, which lies within the lesser or true pelvis. The uterus connects through the cervical canal with the vagina. The vagina opens into the vestibule about which lie the external genitalia, collectively known as the vulva.EXTERNAL GENITALIA
The female external genitalia include the structures placed about the entrance to the vagina and external to the hymen, the membrane across the entrance to the vagina. They are the mons pubis (also called the mons veneris), the labia majora and minora, the clitoris, the vestibule of the vagina, the bulb of the vestibule, and the greater vestibular glands.
The mons pubis is the rounded eminence, made by fatty tissue beneath the skin, lying in front of the pubic symphysis. A few fine hairs may be present in childhood; later, at puberty, they become coarser and more numerous. The upper limit of the hairy region is horizontal across the lower abdomen.
The labia majora are two marked folds of skin that extend from the mons pubis downward and backward to merge with the skin of the perineum. They form the lateral boundaries of the vulval or pudendal cleft, which receives the openings of the vagina and the urethra. The outer surface of each labium is pigmented and hairy; the inner surface is smooth but possesses sebaceous glands. The labia majora contain fat and loose connective tissue and sweat glands. They correspond to the scrotum in the male and contain tissue resembling the dartos muscle. The round ligament (see below The uterus) ends in the tissue of the labium. The labia minora are two small folds of skin, lacking fatty tissue, that extend backward on each side of the opening into the vagina. They lie inside the labia majora and are some 4 cm (about 1.5 inches) in length. In front, an upper portion of each labium minus passes over the clitoris—the structure in the female corresponding to the penis (excluding the urethra) in the male—to form a fold, the prepuce of the clitoris, and a lower portion passes beneath the clitoris to form its frenulum. The two labia minora are joined at the back across the midline by a fold that becomes stretched at childbirth. The labia minora lack hairs but possess sebaceous and sweat glands.
The clitoris is a small erectile structure composed of two corpora cavernosa separated by a partition. Partially concealed beneath the forward ends of the labia minora, it possesses a sensitive tip of spongy erectile tissue, the glans clitoridis. The external opening of the urethra is some 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) behind the clitoris and immediately in front of the vaginal opening.
The vestibule of the vagina is the cleft between the labia minora into which the urethra and vagina open. The hymen vaginae lies at the opening of the vagina: it is a thin fold of mucous membrane that varies in shape. After rupture of the hymen, the small rounded elevations that remain are known as the carunculae hymenales. The bulb of the vestibule, corresponding to the bulb of the penis, is two elongated masses of erectile tissue that lie one on each side of the vaginal opening. At their posterior ends lie the greater vestibular glands, small mucous glands that open by a duct in the groove between the hymen and each labium minus. They correspond to the bulbourethral glands of the male.
The blood supply and nerve supply of the female external genital organs are similar to those supplying corresponding structures in the male.
INTERNAL STRUCTURES
The vagina
The vagina (the word means “sheath”) is the canal that extends from the cervix (outer end) of the uterus within the lesser pelvis down to the vestibule between the labia minora. The orifice of the vagina is guarded by the hymen. The vagina lies behind the bladder and urethra and in front of the rectum and anal canal. Its walls are collapsed; the anterior wall is some 7.5 cm (3 inches) in length, whereas the posterior wall is about 1.5 cm (0.6 inch) longer. The vagina is directed obliquely upward and backward. The axis of the vagina forms an angle of over 90° with that of the uterus. This angle varies considerably depending on conditions in the bladder, in the rectum, and during pregnancy. The cervix of the uterus projects for a short distance into the vagina and is normally pressed against its posterior wall. There are, therefore, recesses in the vagina at the back, on each side, and at the front of the cervix. These are known as the posterior fornix (behind the cervix and the largest), the lateral fornices (at the sides), and the anterior fornix (at the front of the cervix). The position of the uterus in relation to the vagina is described further in the section on the uterus.
The upper part of the posterior wall of the vagina is covered by peritoneum or membrane that is folded back onto the rectum to form the recto-uterine pouch. The lower part of the posterior vaginal wall is separated from the anal canal by a mass of tissue known as the perineal body.
The vagina has a mucous membrane and an outer smooth muscle coat closely attached to it. The mucous membrane has a longitudinal ridge in the midline of both the anterior and posterior walls. The ridges are known as the columns of the vagina; many rugae, or folds, extend from them to each side. The furrows between the rugae are more marked on the posterior wall and become especially pronounced before the birth of a child. The membrane undergoes little change during the menstrual cycle (except in its content of glycogen, a complex starchlike carbohydrate); this is in contradistinction to the situation in many mammals in which marked exfoliation (shedding of the surface cells) can occur. No glands are present in the vaginal lining, and mucus present has been secreted by the glands in the cervical canal of the uterus. The smooth muscle coat consists of an outer longitudinal layer and a less developed inner circular layer. The lower part of the vagina is surrounded by the bulbospongiosus muscle, a striped muscle attached to the perineal body.
The blood supply to the vagina is derived from several adjacent vessels, there being a vaginal artery from the internal iliac artery and also vaginal branches from the uterine, middle rectal, and internal pudendal arteries, all branches of the internal iliac artery. The nerve supply to the lower part of the vagina is from the pudendal nerve and from the inferior hypogastric and uterovaginal plexuses.
The uterus
Uterine structure: The uterus, or womb, is shaped like an inverted pear. It is a hollow, muscular organ with thick walls, and it has a glandular lining called the endometrium. In an adult the uterus is 7.5 cm (3 inches) long, 5 cm (2 inches) in width, and 2.5 cm (1 inch) thick, but it enlarges to four to five times this size in pregnancy. The narrower, lower end is called the cervix; this projects into the vagina. The cervix is made of fibrous connective tissue and is of a firmer consistency than the body of the uterus. The two fallopian tubes enter the uterus at opposite sides, near its top. The part of the uterus above the entrances of the tubes is called the fundus; the part below is termed the body. The body narrows toward the cervix, and a slight external constriction marks the juncture between the body and the cervix.
The uterus does not lie in line with the vagina but is usually turned forward (anteverted) to form approximately a right angle with it. The position of the uterus is affected by the amount of distension in the urinary bladder and in the rectum. Enlargement of the uterus in pregnancy causes it to rise up into the abdominal cavity, so that there is closer alignment with the vagina. The nonpregnant uterus also curves gently forward; it is said to be anteflexed. The uterus is supported and held in position by the other pelvic organs, by the muscular floor or diaphragm of the pelvis, by certain fibrous ligaments, and by folds of peritoneum. Among the supporting ligaments are two double-layered broad ligaments, each of which contains a fallopian tube along its upper free border and a round ligament, corresponding to the gubernaculum testis of the male, between its layers. Two ligaments—the cardinal (Mackenrodt) ligaments—at each side of the cervix are also important in maintaining the position of the uterus.
The cavity of the uterus is remarkably small in comparison with the size of the organ. Except during pregnancy, the cavity is flattened, with front and rear walls touching, and is triangular. The triangle is inverted, with its base at the top, between the openings of the two fallopian tubes, and with its apex at the isthmus of the uterus, the opening into the cervix. The canal of the cervix is flattened from front to back and is somewhat larger in its middle part. It is traversed by two longitudinal ridges and has oblique folds stretching from each ridge in an arrangement like the branches of a tree. The cervical canal is 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) in length; its opening into the vagina is called the external os of the uterus. The external os is small, almost circular, and often depressed. After childbirth, the external os becomes bounded by lips in front and in back and is thus more slitlike. The cervical canal is lined by a mucous membrane containing numerous glands that secrete a clear, alkaline mucus. The upper part of this lining undergoes cyclical changes resembling, but not as marked as, those occurring in the body of the uterus. Numerous small cysts (nabothian cysts) are found in the cervical mucous membrane. It is from this region that cervical smears are taken in order to detect early changes indicative of cancer.
The uterus is composed of three layers of tissue. On the outside is a serous coat of peritoneum (a membrane exuding a fluid like blood minus its cells and the clotting factor fibrinogen), which partially covers the organ. In front it covers only the body of the cervix; behind it covers the body and the part of the cervix that is above the vagina and is prolonged onto the posterior vaginal wall; from there it is folded back to the rectum. At the side the peritoneal layers stretch from the margin of the uterus to each side wall of the pelvis, forming the two broad ligaments of the uterus.
The middle layer of tissue (myometrium) is muscular and comprises the greater part of the bulk of the organ. It is very firm and consists of densely packed, unstriped, smooth muscle fibres. Blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves are also present. The muscle is more or less arranged in three layers of fibres running in different directions. The outermost fibres are arranged longitudinally. Those of the middle layer run in all directions without any orderly arrangement; this layer is the thickest. The innermost fibres are longitudinal and circular in their arrangement.
The innermost layer of tissue in the uterus is the mucous membrane, or endometrium. It lines the uterine cavity as far as the isthmus of the uterus, where it becomes continuous with the lining of the cervical canal. The endometrium contains numerous uterine glands that open into the uterine cavity and are embedded in the cellular framework or stroma of the endometrium. Numerous blood vessels and lymphatic spaces are also present. The appearances of the endometrium vary considerably at the different stages in reproductive life. It begins to reach full development at puberty and thereafter exhibits dramatic changes during each menstrual cycle. It undergoes further changes before, during, and after pregnancy, during the menopause, and in old age. These changes are for the most part hormonally induced and controlled by the activity of the ovaries.
The endometrium in the menstrual cycle: To understand the nature of the changes in the endometrium during each menstrual cycle it is usual to consider the endometrium to be composed of three layers. They blend imperceptibly but are functionally distinct: the inner two layers are shed at menstruation, and the outer or basal layer remains in position against the innermost layer of the myometrium. The three layers are called, respectively, the stratum compactum, the stratum spongiosum, and the stratum basale epidermidis. The stratum compactum is nearest to the uterine cavity and contains the lining cells and the necks of the uterine glands; its stroma is relatively dense. Superficial blood vessels lie beneath the lining cells. The stratum spongiosum is the large middle layer. It contains the main portions of uterine glands and accompanying blood vessels; the stromal cells are more loosely arranged and larger than in the stratum compactum. The stratum basale epidermidis lies against the uterine muscle; it contains blood vessels and the bases of the uterine glands. Its stroma remains relatively unaltered during the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle extends over a period of about 28 days (normal range 21–34 days), from the first day of one menstrual flow to the first day of the next. It reflects the cycle of changes occurring in the ovary, which is itself under the control of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The menstrual cycle is divided into four phases: menstrual, postmenstrual, proliferative, and secretory.
The secretory phase reaches its climax about a week after ovulation. Ovulation occurs in midcycle, about 14 days before the onset of the next menstrual flow. The endometrium has been prepared and has been stimulated to a state of active secretion for the reception of a fertilized ovum. The stage has been set for the attachment of the blastocyst, derived from a fertilized ovum, to the endometrium and for its subsequent embedding. This process is called implantation; its success depends on the satisfactory preparation of the endometrium in both the proliferative and secretory phases. When implantation occurs, a hormone from certain cells of the blastocyst causes prolongation of the corpus luteum and its continued activity. This causes suppression of menstruation and results in the maintenance of the endometrium and its further stimulation by progesterone, with consequent increased thickening. The endometrium of early pregnancy is known as the decidua.
In a cycle in which fertilization of the ovum has not taken place, the secretory phase terminates in menstruation.
The endometrium needs to be in a certain state of preparedness before implantation can occur. When this stage has been passed, menstruation occurs. Repair then reestablishes an endometrium capable of being stimulated again to the critical stage when implantation can occur.
Blood supply and innervation: The uterus is supplied with blood by the two uterine arteries, which are branches of the internal iliac arteries, and by ovarian arteries, which connect with the ends of the uterine arteries and send branches to supply the uterus. The nerves to the uterus include the sympathetic nerve fibres, which produce contraction of uterine muscle and constriction of vessels, and parasympathetic (sacral) fibres, which inhibit muscle activity and cause dilation of blood vessels.
The fallopian tubes
The fallopian, or uterine, tubes carry ova from the ovaries to the cavity of the uterus. Each opens into the abdominal cavity near an ovary at one end and into the uterus at the other. Three sections of the tubes are distinguished: the funnel-shaped outer end, or infundibulum; the expanded and thin-walled intermediate portion, or ampulla; and the cordlike portion, the isthmus, that opens into the uterus. The infundibulum is fringed with irregular projections called fimbriae. One fimbria, somewhat larger than the others, is usually attached to the ovary. The opening into the abdomen is at the bottom of the infundibulum and is small. Fertilization of the ovum usually occurs in the ampulla of the tube. Normally the fertilized egg is transported to the uterus, but occasionally it may adhere to the tube and start developing as an ectopic pregnancy, or tubal pregnancy. The tube is unable to support this pregnancy, and the conceptus may be extruded through the abdominal opening or may cause rupture of the tube, with ensuing hemorrhage.
The fallopian tube is covered by peritoneum except on its border next to the broad ligament. There are inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of smooth muscle fibres continuous with those of the uterus. The inner lining has numerous longitudinal folds that are covered with ciliated columnar and secretory cells. Muscular contraction, movement of the hairlike cilia, and the passage of the watery secretions all probably assist in the transport of sperm to the ampulla and of a fertilized ovum toward the uterus.
The ovaries
Ovarian structure: The female gonads, or primary sex organs, corresponding to the testes in a male, are the two ovaries. Each is suspended by a mesentery, or fold of membrane, from the back layer of the broad ligament of the uterus. In a woman who has not been pregnant, the almond-shaped ovary lies in a vertical position against a depression, the ovarian fossa, on the side wall of the lesser pelvis. This relationship is altered during and after pregnancy. Each ovary is somewhat over 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length, 1.25 cm (0.5 inch) across, and slightly less in thickness, but the size varies much with age and with state of activity.The mesentery of the ovary helps to keep it in position, and within this membrane lie the ovarian artery and vein, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibres. The fallopian tube arches over the ovary and curves downward on its inner or medial surface.
Except at its hilum, the point where blood vessels and the nerve enter the ovary and where the mesentery is attached, the surface of the ovary is smooth and is covered by cubical cells. Beneath the surface, the substance of the ovary is divided into an outer portion, the cortex, and an inner portion, or medulla. The outermost part of the cortex, immediately beneath the outer covering, forms a thin connective tissue zone, the tunica albuginea. The rest of the cortex consists of stromal or framework cells, contained in a fine network of fibres, and also the follicles and corpora lutea.
The ovarian follicles, sometimes called graafian follicles, are rounded enclosures for the developing ova in the cortex near the surface of the ovary. At birth and in childhood they are present as numerous primary or undeveloped ovarian follicles. Each contains a primitive ovum, or oocyte, and each is covered by a single layer of flattened cells. As many as 700,000 primary follicles are contained in the two ovaries of a young female. Most of these degenerate before or after puberty.
Ovulation: During the onset of puberty and thereafter until menopause (except during pregnancy), there is a cyclic development of one or more follicles each month into a mature follicle. The covering layer of the primary follicle thickens and can be differentiated into an inner membrana granulosa and an outer vascularized theca interna. The cells of these layers (mostly the theca interna) produce estrogenic steroid hormones that exert their effects on the endometrium of the uterus and on other tissues. The maintenance and growth of the follicle to maturity is brought about by a follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Another hormone, called luteinizing hormone (LH), from the anterior lobe, assists FSH to cause the maturing, now fluid-filled follicle to secrete estrogens. LH also causes a ripe follicle (1.0–1.5 cm [0.4–0.6 inch] in diameter) to rupture, causing the liberation of the oocyte into the peritoneal cavity and thence into the fallopian tube. This liberation of the oocyte is called ovulation; it occurs at about the midpoint of the reproductive cycle, on the 13th or 14th day of a 28-day cycle as measured from the first day of the menstrual flow.After ovulation the ruptured follicle collapses because of loss of its follicular fluid and rapidly becomes transformed into a soft, well-vascularized glandular structure known as the corpus luteum(“yellow body”). The corpus luteum develops rapidly, becomes vascularized after about four days, and is fully established by nine days. The gland produces the steroid hormone progesterone and some estrogens. Its activity is both stimulated and maintained by luteinizing hormone. Progesterone stimulates glandular proliferation and secretion in an endometrium primed by estrogens.
While the ovarian follicle matures, the primary oocyte divides into a secondary oocyte and a small rudimentary ovum called the first polar body. This occurs at about the time when the follicle develops its cavity; the oocyte also gains a translucent acellular covering, or envelope, the zona pellucida. The secondary oocyte is liberated at ovulation; it is 120–140 micrometres in diameter and is surrounded by the zona pellucida and a few layers of cells known as the corona radiata. The final maturation of the oocyte, with the formation of the rudimentary ovum called the second polar body, occurs at the time of fertilization.
If fertilization does not occur, then the life of the corpus luteum is limited to about 14 days. Degeneration of the gland starts toward the end of this period, and menstruation occurs. The corpus luteum shrinks, fibrous tissue is formed, and it is converted into a scarlike structure called a corpus albicans, which persists for a few months.
Should fertilization occur and be followed by implantation of the blastocyst, hormones (particularly human chorionic gonadotropin) are produced by cells of the blastocyst to prolong the life of the corpus luteum. It persists in an active state for at least the first two months of pregnancy, until the placental tissue has taken over its hormone-producing function. The corpus luteum of pregnancy then also retrogresses, becoming a fibrous scar by the time of parturition.